Tayebeh Mohammadi Kia

Assistant Professor - Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies- Tehran- Iran.

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Abstract:

This paper investigates the nuanced dynamics of scientific diplomacy during the 17th century, with a particular emphasis on the contributions of Allameh Behabadi amidst the intense rivalry between the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid Empire. In this period marked by significant political and religious strife, the integrity of Shi'a Islam faced considerable challenges, especially within scholarly communities such as Najaf. Allameh Behabadi, as a leading figure in Najaf, played a crucial role in preserving the tenets of Shi'a Islam while navigating the complexities of inter-empire conflicts. This study explores Behabadi’s strategic approaches to scientific diplomacy, emphasizing his promotion of dialogue among diverse scholars, his enhancement of logical and philosophical discourse, and his establishment of effective educational institutions.

By advocating for the importance of knowledge and rational inquiry, Behabadi aimed to safeguard the intellectual heritage of Shi'a Islam and foster an environment conducive to the exchange of ideas among Sunni and Shi'a scholars alike. Furthermore, this paper examines Behabadi's adept management of relationships with both Safavid and Ottoman authorities, demonstrating how he utilized scientific diplomacy to maintain the academic independence of Najaf.

Ultimately, this study highlights the lasting impact of Allameh Behabadi’s efforts on the preservation and advancement of Shi'a intellectual traditions, illustrating the vital role of scholarly engagement in shaping the broader landscape of Islamic thought during a period of significant upheaval.

Keywords: Scientific Diplomacy,  Allameh Behabadi, 17th Century,  Ottomans, Safavid Empire.

-Introduction:

In the 17th century, the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid Empire were embroiled in a bitter rivalry that extended into the religious sphere. This conflict saw the Sunni Şeykh ül Islam of Istanbul and the Shi'a scholars of Isfahan positioned against each other. However, a significant counter-trend emerged in Najaf, Iraq, aiming to:

1. Maintain Shi'a Islam's independence from political disputes.
2. Transmit Shi'a traditions that were influenced by Sunni thought, preserved by the schools of Baghdad, Hilla, and Jabal Amil, to future generations.

So one can say Allameh Behabadi, a prominent scholar of Najaf, played a crucial role in this endeavor, fostering scientific diplomacy that helped safeguard Najaf from the Ottoman-Safavid rivalry and facilitating the transmission of pre-Isfahani scholastic thought to Shi'a Islam.

This paper delves into the complex dynamics of scientific diplomacy in the 17th century, with a particular emphasis on the pivotal role of Allameh Behabadi within the context of the fierce rivalry between the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid Empire. The 17th century was marked by significant political and religious upheaval, which had profound implications for the intellectual and cultural landscape of the region.

The Safavid Empire, which established Shi'a Islam as the state religion in Persia, found itself in constant conflict with the Sunni Ottoman Empire. This rivalry was not merely a military confrontation; it also manifested in ideological and theological disputes that threatened the stability of Shi'a communities, particularly in regions like Najaf, which became a center for Shi'a scholarship. In this environment, scholars faced the dual challenge of defending their religious identity while engaging with the broader intellectual currents of the time.

At that time of Allameh Behabadi emerged as a prominent figure in Najaf, where his scholarly contributions were instrumental in promoting a form of scientific diplomacy that sought to navigate the treacherous waters of inter-empire rivalry. His approach can be understood through several key dimensions:

1. Preservation of Shi'a Integrity: Behabadi recognized the importance of maintaining the integrity of Shi'a Islam amidst external pressures. He advocated for a rigorous engagement with classical texts and emphasized the significance of logic and rational discourse in theological discussions. By reinforcing the intellectual foundations of Shi'a thought, he aimed to protect the community from doctrinal dilution and external critique.
2. Promotion of Dialogue: In a time characterized by sectarian tensions, Behabadi championed the idea of dialogue among scholars from different backgrounds. He understood that fostering a spirit of cooperation could mitigate the divisive effects of political conflict. By encouraging scholarly exchanges and debates, he helped create a more inclusive intellectual environment, allowing for the sharing of ideas and the development of a more nuanced understanding of Shi'a theology.
3. Educational Reforms: Behabadi played a critical role in revitalizing educational institutions in Najaf. He focused on teaching logic, philosophy, and jurisprudence, which were essential for cultivating a generation of scholars capable of engaging with contemporary issues. His efforts to establish a robust educational framework not only empowered Shi'a scholars but also ensured the continuity of intellectual traditions that could withstand the pressures of political rivalry.
4. Navigating Political Landscapes: Behabadi's diplomatic acumen allowed him to navigate the complex political landscapes of the time. He adeptly managed relationships with both Safavid and Ottoman authorities, leveraging his scholarly status to advocate for the autonomy of Najaf as a center of learning. This strategic positioning helped safeguard the intellectual pursuits of scholars in the region against the backdrop of imperial ambitions.

 This paper highlights how Allameh Behabadi and his contemporaries utilized scientific diplomacy as a means of preserving the integrity of Shi'a Islam during a tumultuous period marked by the rivalry between the Ottoman and Safavid Empires. By fostering dialogue, promoting education, and navigating political challenges, Behabadi played a crucial role in ensuring that Najaf remained a vibrant center of Shi'a scholarship. His legacy serves as a testament to the power of intellectual engagement in the face of adversity, illustrating how scholarly pursuits can contribute to the resilience of religious communities.

-Outline of the Paper:

1. Political Conditions of Behabadi's Era;
2. The Role of Scholars in the Conflicts between the Safavids and Ottomans;
3. The Impact of Allameh Behabadi's Scientific Diplomacy;

- I explain these tree Outlines below:

1. Political Conditions of Behabadi's Era:

To understand the socio-political role of Allameh Behabadi, it is essential to examine the political, religious, and historical conditions of his time. Behabadi lived during the early period of the Safavid Empire, which ruled Iran from 1501 to 1736 as a Shiite Muslim government. Concurrently, the Ottoman Empire emerged as a Sunni caliphate, controlling vast territories across Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa until the early 20th century.

The conflict between the Ottoman Sheikh al-Islams and the Safavid Ulama is crucial to this presentation. This enduring dispute was rooted in differing religious and political ideologies, with the Sheikh al-Islams serving as the highest religious authorities in the Ottoman Empire, primarily responsible for upholding Sunni Islam. Many of them deemed the Safavids as heretics and apostates, issuing fatwas that called for the destruction of the Safavid Empire.

The perception of rivalry was mutual; some Safavid Ulama viewed the Ottoman Empire as a threat to their Shi'a faith and advocated for its downfall, supporting Shi'a uprisings within Ottoman territories.

2. The Role of Scholars in the Conflicts:

The conflict between the two empires resulted in numerous wars and battles, notably the Ottoman victory at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, which solidified Ottoman control over Eastern Anatolia and further weakened the Safavid position. This rivalry also led to widespread religious persecution, with reports of Sheikh al-Islams persecuting Shiites and Safavid Ulama retaliating against Sunnis.To summarize the conflicts, we can categorize them into three main areas:

1. Political Differences: The two empires had divergent political orientations, leading to harsh clashes over territory and power.
2. Geopolitical Rivalry: The empires competed for dominance in the Middle East, vying for control over trade routes, resources, and influence, resulting in multiple conflicts.
3. Religious Differences: The distinct religious ideologies of the two empires fueled theological disputes concerning jurisprudence and theology.

In light of these factors, it is evident that religious scholars from both the Safavid and Ottoman empires played a significant role in the conflict. They utilized their authority and influence to propagate animosity against one another, often characterizing the opposing side as heretical and a threat to their religious communities.

3. Allameh Behabadi's Scientific Diplomacy:

A notable example of this hostility is the fatwa issued by the prominent Ottoman Sheikh al-Islam, Ebussuud Efendi, in 1515, which called for the extermination of the Safavids, labeling them as heretics undermining the Sunni caliphate. Similarly, Safavid scholars issued counter-fatwas, branding the Ottomans as infidels persecuting Shiites. This mutual propaganda fostered a climate of fear and suspicion, increasing the likelihood of conflict.

At the end, Allameh Behabadi's scientific diplomacy emerged as a crucial counterbalance to this animosity. By promoting a vision of Shi'a Islam that transcended political disputes, he played a pivotal role in preserving the integrity of Shi'a traditions during a tumultuous period.

-The Role of Shi'a Scholars in the Safavid Empire:

During the Safavid Empire, Shi'a scholars played a crucial role in legitimizing the authority of the Shah of Iran. Their influence extended beyond religious matters, impacting both the political and social landscapes of the empire. These scholars were not only pivotal in promoting Shi'a Islam but also in opposing the Ottomans and the Sunni Sheikh al-Islams, both religiously and ideologically.

To understand their role more accurately, it is essential to recognize the existence of two major schools of thought among Shi'a scholars during this period: the Akhbaris and the Usulis:

1.Akhbaris: 

   The Akhbaris adhered to a traditionalist approach, emphasizing the importance of hadith (the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad and the Infallible Imams, peace be upon them). They generally opposed rational inquiry or innovation in religious duties, asserting that reliance on hadith alone was sufficient. For them, jurisprudential methodologies were unnecessary and even invalid.

2. Usulis:

   In contrast, the Usulis represented a rationalist school of thought that emphasized reason, logic, and interpretation in religious studies. While traditionally open to ideas and arguments from Sunni scholars, the Usulis of Isfahan during the Safavid era exhibited a heightened sensitivity toward Sunni perspectives, particularly given the political tensions of the time.

-Usuliyyah and the Safavid State:

The significance of the Usuli school can be understood in the context of its rising influence during the Safavid period. Both Usulis and Akhbaris were willing to cooperate with the Safavid state, occupying various governmental positions. However, this cooperation also led to a significant ideological battle between the two schools, each vying for dominance within the Shi'a scholarly community.

- between the Ottomans and Safavids

1.The Conflict Over Holy Shrines:

The rivalry between the Ottomans and Safavids extended to Najaf and Karbala, transforming these cities into battlegrounds for control over the holy shrines. The struggle for dominance over these sacred sites became a major factor in the conflict between the two empires.

2. Religious Authority:

   Both empires sought to assert their religious authority within the Muslim world. Control over the holy shrines would provide a substantial advantage in this competition.

3. Political Power:

   The holy shrines were located in Iraq, a region of strategic importance. Control over Iraq would enhance the political leverage of the empire that dominated it.

4. Economic Benefits:

   The holy shrines served as significant pilgrimage destinations for Shiites worldwide. Control over these sites would yield considerable economic benefits for the empire that claimed them.

The rivalry between the Ottomans and Safavids significantly impacted the region, shaping the religious and political landscape of modern Iraq.

-The Role of Molla Abdullah Behabadi in the Safavid-Ottoman Conflict:

To appreciate the contributions of Allameh Behabadi, it is essential to focus on his actions during the most challenging times of this conflict. When the Ottomans eventually conquered Najaf, it marked a significant setback for the Safavid Empire, threatening the Shi'i character of the city. Despite this conquest, Behabadi not only remained in Najaf but also successfully preserved his position as the administrator of the shrine under Ottoman authority. This achievement was remarkable, considering the tense political and religious climate of the time. Behabadi’s ability to navigate these challenges exemplified his commitment to maintaining the integrity of Shi'a Islam and the scholarly traditions of Najaf, even amidst overwhelming adversity.

The contribution of Molla Abdullah Behabadi to the dynamics of the Safavid-Ottoman conflict can be articulated through two significant phases, each illustrating his multifaceted role as both an actor and a thinker  so the role of Molla Abdullah Behabadi in the Safavid-Ottoman conflict can be divided into two phases:

First, as an actor: Molla Abdullah, as a leading scholar in Najaf, played a crucial role in fostering diplomatic scientific trends that helped keep Najaf out of the Ottoman-Safavid rivalry.

Second, as a thinker: Molla Abdullah was instrumental in transmitting the pre-Isfahan scholastic thought of Shi’a into the post-Safavid era.

1. Molla Abdullah as an Actor: Promoting Diplomatic Scientific Trends

In the turbulent context of the Safavid-Ottoman rivalry, Molla Abdullah Behabadi emerged as a leading scholar in Najaf who played a crucial role in fostering a diplomatic scholarly environment. The geopolitical tensions between the Safavid state and the Ottoman Empire often resulted in the politicization of religious leadership, placing significant pressure on religious scholars to align with the prevailing political narratives of their time. However, Molla Abdullah adeptly navigated these challenges, advocating for a scholarly approach that prioritized dialogue over discord.

By emphasizing the importance of rational discourse and intellectual engagement, Molla Abdullah worked to keep Najaf insulated from the escalating hostilities between these two powerful empires. His efforts promoted an atmosphere of scholarly inquiry that allowed for the continuation of educational activities without being co-opted by political agendas. This diplomatic stance was instrumental in preserving the integrity of Najaf as a center of Shi’a scholarship, enabling scholars to focus on their academic pursuits rather than becoming entangled in the rivalries that defined the era.

Molla Abdullah’s ability to maintain this nuanced position was critical during a time when sectarian tensions were often heightened by the external pressures of empire. By fostering a collaborative spirit among scholars, he helped to create a protective intellectual sanctuary in Najaf, thereby ensuring the survival and flourishing of Shi’a educational traditions against a backdrop of conflict and uncertainty.

1. Molla Abdullah as a Thinker: Transmitting Scholastic Thought

In addition to his role as an active diplomat, Molla Abdullah Behabadi was also a significant thinker who played a transformative role in the transmission of pre-Isfahan scholastic thought into the post-Safavid era. His scholarly work encompassed critical engagement with the extensive intellectual legacy left by earlier scholars, drawing upon classical Shi’a texts while simultaneously addressing the emerging challenges of his time.

Molla Abdullah’s commitment to logic and rational inquiry was particularly noteworthy, as he sought to establish a coherent framework that connected the rich intellectual heritage of Najaf with the evolving needs of the Shi’a community. This endeavor was not merely a historiographical exercise; it was a vital step in ensuring that the principles of rational discourse remained accessible and relevant in the face of contemporary theological debates. His contributions facilitated a continuity of thought that transcended the immediate geopolitical upheaval of the Safavid-Ottoman conflict. By synthesizing traditional teachings with new ideas and methodologies, Molla Abdullah helped to pave the way for subsequent generations of Shi’a scholars. This intellectual transmission was essential for the resilience and adaptability of Shi’a thought, allowing it to engage meaningfully with both historical traditions and modern challenges. In sum, Molla Abdullah Behabadi's role in the Safavid-Ottoman conflict is best understood through his dual engagement as an actor and thinker. As an actor, he championed a diplomatic scholarly environment that safeguarded Najaf's intellectual pursuits from the overarching political rivalries of the time. As a thinker, he ensured the continuity of pre-Isfahan scholastic thought, allowing the Shi’a tradition to evolve and adapt in a post-Safavid context. His legacy not only fortified the scholarly foundations of Najaf but also enriched the broader Shi’a intellectual landscape, enabling it to flourish even amidst turmoil.

-Diplomatic Ability as an Actor:

Molla Abdullah executed a delicate balancing act of scientific diplomacy. As mentioned previously, he was a key figure in the city of Najaf and served as the administrator of the holy shrine of Imam Ali under the authority of Shah Tahmasb Safavi. When Najaf became part of the Ottoman Empire, Behabadi played a pivotal role in maintaining its status as a non-combat zone. Through his astute policies, he ensured that the shrine of Imam Ali remained a center for Shi’i learning and scholarship, reflecting his commitment to the independence of the Shi’i community. Indeed, Behabadi’s strategies assisted the community of clerics in Najaf not only to survive the Safavid-Ottoman conflict but also to thrive for centuries thereafter. His diplomatic talents and skills are evident in his ability to build trust with the Ottoman authorities while remaining committed to the Shi’i community and Iran as its center. It is worth noting that Behabadi was able to convince the Ottomans to allow him to continue his role as the administrator of the shrine, effectively preventing any damage or destruction during the Ottoman conquest.

Behabadi's success lay in his ability to navigate the complex relationships between Ottoman authority and Shi'a devotion. He cultivated trust with Ottoman officials, likely demonstrating respect for their rule while subtly advocating for the interests of the Shi'a community. This delicate balancing act, exemplified by his convincing the Ottomans to permit his continued leadership of the shrine, prevented unnecessary conflict while safeguarding both the physical integrity and religious significance of this sacred site.

 

His actions secured the continuity of the shrine, an essential pillar of Shi'a faith and practice. This preservation is profoundly significant for contemporary Shi'a Muslims who revere it as a holy space and for academic researchers studying Islamic history, ensuring the survival of a crucial piece of the religion's heritage. By protecting both the shrine and the autonomy of the Shi'a community in Najaf, Behabadi stands as a testament to the power of diplomacy and skillful negotiation during turbulent times. His experiences offer valuable insights into navigating the complex dynamics of religious and political challenges.

-Scientific and Intellectual Role of Molla Abdullah as a Thinker:

Molla Abdullah's efforts successfully preserved a significant part of the pre-Safavid Shi'a legacy of rationalism, which continues to be an essential aspect of Shi'a thought today. To elucidate this, it is necessary to discuss the significance of Molla Abdullah's work in preserving the intellectual tradition of pre-Najaf Shi'ism (including the contributions from Baghdad, Hilla, and Jabal 'Amil) and its evolution into post-Najaf Shi'ism, particularly in contemporary Qom.

One of the critical ways in which Molla Abdullah maintained the intellectual tradition of Najaf was through his scholarship in the field of logic. In the scholastic reasoning and argumentation of classical Shi’i jurisprudence, logic is regarded as vital and necessary. Due to various challenges, this field of study was often neglected among Shi'i scholars in Isfahan. So one can say one of the pivotal avenues through which Molla Abdullah Behabadi preserved and advanced the intellectual tradition of Najaf was his profound scholarship in the field of logic. In classical Shi'a jurisprudence, logic is not merely an auxiliary discipline; it is considered fundamental to the structure of scholarly reasoning and argumentation. This emphasis on logical rigor is integral to the interpretation and application of religious texts, enabling scholars to derive legal principles and theological insights systematically.

However, during Molla Abdullah's time, the study of logic faced significant challenges and was often overshadowed by other fields among Shi'a scholars in Isfahan. The political and intellectual climate of the Safavid period, marked by turbulent changes and fluctuating patronage, led to a decline in the focus on logical studies, which many scholars viewed as secondary to theological and mystical pursuits.

In contrast, Molla Abdullah’s commitment to logic distinguished him from his contemporaries and played a crucial role in revitalizing this essential discipline within Shi'a scholarship. By authoring commentaries and engaging with classical texts on logic, he not only reinforced its importance but also demonstrated its relevance in the broader context of Shi'a intellectual life. His efforts permitted a return to rational inquiry and critical thinking, which are vital in navigating contemporary theological debates.

Through his work, Molla Abdullah Behabadi ensured that the rich tradition of logical reasoning remained a cornerstone of Shi'a scholarship in Najaf, offering future scholars the tools necessary for effective argumentation and interpretation. This reassertion of logic as a critical component of religious education laid the groundwork for a more robust and dynamic Shi’a intellectual tradition that continued to evolve well beyond his era.

 

 

In this context, Molla Abdullah's work on logic was particularly significant. He authored a commentary on a classic text of logic by the great Sunni scholar Al-Taftazani, which has made a major contribution to the study of logic within the Shi'a community up to the present day. The importance of logic in the Shi'a intellectual tradition extends beyond its application in epistemological and methodological arguments in jurisprudence; it is also crucial for fostering critical thinking and rational discourse across various Islamic disciplines.

-Conclusion:

Molla Abdullah Behabadi's scientific and practical contributions serve as a reminder of the power of diplomacy and negotiation in overcoming political and religious conflicts. His efforts were pivotal in developing Shi'a Islam, enabling it to remain insulated from political disputes while preserving the scientific traditions of Shi'a thought. Moreover, Behabadi's work in logic represents a significant advancement in the evolution of Shi'a Islam, ensuring that its intellectual tradition continues to thrive dynamically.

Mullah Abdullah Behabadi's scholarly and practical contributions serve as a powerful reminder of the potential for diplomacy and negotiation to transcend political and religious conflicts. His life’s work illustrates that intellectual engagement and reasoned dialogue can serve as effective mechanisms for conflict resolution in highly charged environments. By fostering bridges between conflicting factions, particularly during the tumultuous Safavid-Ottoman rivalry, Mullah Abdullah exemplifies how dialogue can mitigate tensions and promote coexistence. His legacy emphasizes the timeless relevance of diplomacy in addressing contemporary challenges, suggesting that thoughtful communication can facilitate peaceful resolution even amidst polarizing divisions.

Moreover, Mullah Abdullah's extensive contributions were pivotal to the development of Shi’a Islam, as he skillfully maintained the separation of religious scholarship from the prevailing political disputes. His commitment to preserving the integrity of Shi’a thought ensured that it remained insulated from external pressures during a time of considerable upheaval. By prioritizing educational initiatives and intellectual pursuits, he cultivated a rich academic environment that allowed Shi’a traditions to flourish independently. This critical intervention not only safeguarded existing scholarly frameworks but also fostered the evolution of Shi’a thought, empowering future generations of scholars to engage with and expand upon these traditions. In particular, Mullah Abdullah's work in the field of logic marks a significant advancement in the intellectual history of Shi’a Islam. His efforts to engage critically with classical texts and provide comprehensive commentaries on logic underpinned a robust and rigorous Shi’a intellectual tradition. By emphasizing the importance of logical reasoning, he encouraged scholarly inquiry and critical thinking—attributes that are vital for the sustained vitality of any academic discipline. The legacy of his contributions extends beyond his lifetime, ensuring that the Shi’a intellectual tradition remains dynamic and responsive to contemporary challenges. Mullah Abdullah Behabadi's work fundamentally enriched the scholarly landscape of Shi’a Islam, establishing a foundation that continues to inspire robust discourse and innovation in the field.

In summary, Mullah Abdullah Behabadi emerges as a seminal figure in Shi’a history, whose contributions illuminate the intertwining of diplomacy, intellectual pursuit, and the preservation of religious tradition. His life and work serve as a paragon for contemporary scholars and leaders, illustrating the enduring power of dialogue, the necessity of intellectual independence, and the role of logic in sustaining a vibrant and evolving scholarly community.